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headings already given： affirmation； repetition； prestige； and
contagion。
Mental contagion may affect a whole people instantaneously； but
more often it operates slowly； creeping from group to group。
Thus was the Reformation propagated in France。
A people is far less excitable than a crowd； but certain events
national insults； threats of invasion； &c。may arouse it
instantly。 Such a phenomenon was observed on several occasions
during the Revolution； notably at the time of the insolent
manifesto issued by the Duke of Brunswick。 The Duke knew little
indeed of the psychology of the French race when he
proffered his threats。 Not only did he considerably prejudice
the cause of Louis XVI。； but he also damaged his own； since his
intervention raised from the soil an army eager to fight him。
This sudden explosion of feeling throughout a whole race has been
observed in all nations。 Napoleon did not understand the power
of such explosions when he invaded Spain and Russia。 One may
easily disaggregate the facile mind of a crowd； but one can do
nothing before the permanent soul of a race。 Certainly the
Russian peasant is a very indifferent being； gross and narrow by
nature； yet at the first news of invasion he was transformed。
One may judge of this fact on reading a letter written by
Elizabeth； wife of the Emperor Alexander I。
‘‘From the moment when Napoleon had crossed our frontiers it was
as though an electric spark had spread through all Russia； and if
the immensity of its area had made it possible for the news to
penetrate simultaneously to every corner of the Empire a cry of
indignation would have arisen so terrible that I believe it would
have resounded to the ends of the earth。 As Napoleon advances
this feeling is growing yet stronger。 Old men who have lost all
or nearly all their goods are saying： ‘We shall find a way of
living。 Anything is preferable to a shameful peace。' Women all
of whose kin are in the army regard the dangers they are running
as secondary； and fear nothing but peace。 Happily this peace；
which would be the death…warrant of Russia； will not be
negotiated； the Emperor does not conceive of such an idea； and
even if he would he could not。 This is the heroic side of our
position。''
The Empress describes to her mother the two following traits；
which give some idea of the degree of resistance of which the
soul of the Russian is capable：
‘‘The Frenchmen had caught some unhappy peasants in Moscow； whom
they thought to force to serve in their ranks； and in order that
they should not be able to escape they branded their hands as one
brands horses in the stud。 One of them asked what this mark
meant； he was told it signified that he was a French soldier。
‘What！ I am a soldier of the Emperor of the French！' he said。
And immediately he took his hatchet； cut off his hand； and threw
it at the feet of those present； saying； ‘Take itthere's your
mark！'
‘‘At Moscow； too； the French had taken a score of peasants of
whom they wished to make an example in order to frighten the
villagers； who were picking off the French foraging parties and
were making war as well as the detachments of regular troops。
They ranged them against a wall and read their sentence in
Russian。 They waited for them to beg for mercy： instead of that
they took farewell of one another and made their sign of the
cross。 The French fired on the first of them； they waited for
the rest to beg for pardon in their terror； and to promise to
change their conduct。 They fired on the second； and on the
third； and so on all the twenty； without a single one having
attempted to implore the clemency of the enemy。 Napoleon has
not once had the pleasure of profaning this word in Russia。''
Among the characteristics of the popular mind we must mention
that in all peoples and all ages it has been saturated
with mysticism。 The people will always be convinced that
superior beingsdivinities； Governments； or great menhave the
power to change things at will。 This mystic side produces an
intense need of adoration。 The people must have a fetich； either
a man or a doctrine。 This is why； when threatened with anarchy；
it calls for a Messiah to save it。
Like the crowd； but more slowly； the people readily passes from
adoration to hatred。 A man may be the hero of the people at one
period； and finally earn its curses。 These variations of popular
opinion concerning political personalities may be observed in all
times。 The history of Cromwell furnishes us with a very curious
example。＇5＇
＇5＇ After having overthrown a dynasty and refused a crown he was
buried like a king among kings。 Two years later his body was
torn from the tomb； and his head； cut off by the executioner； was
exposed above the gate of the House of Parliament。 A little
while ago a statue was raised to him。 The old anarchist turned
autocrat now figures in the gallery of demigods。
4。 The Role of the Leader in Revolutionary Movements。
All the varieties of crowdshomogeneous and heterogeneous；
assemblies； peoples； clubs； &c。are； as we have often repeated；
aggregates incapable of unity and action so long as they find no
master to lead them。
I have shown elsewhere； making use of certain physiological
experiments； that the unconscious collective mind of the crowd
seems bound up with the mind of the leader。 The latter gives it
a single will and imposes absolute obedience。
The leader acts especially through suggestion。 His success
depends on his fashion of provoking this suggestion。 Many
experiments have shown to what point a collectivity may be
subjected to suggestion。＇6＇
＇6＇ Among the numerous experiments made to prove this fact one of
the most remarkable was performed on the pupils of his class by
Professor Glosson and published in the Revue Scientifique for
October 28； 1899。
‘‘I prepared a bottle filled with distilled water carefully
wrapped in cotton and packed in a box。 After several other
experiments I stated that I wished to measure the rapidity with
which an odour would diffuse itself through the air； and asked
those present to raise their hands the moment they perceived the
odour。 。 。 。 I took out the bottle and poured the water on the
cotton； turning my head away during the operation； then took up a
stop…watch and awaited the result。 。 。 。 I explained that I was
absolutely sure that no one present had ever smelt the odour of
the chemical composition I had spilt。 。 。 。 At the end of
fifteen seconds the majority of those in front had held up their
hands； and in forty seconds the odour had reached the back of the
hall by fairly regular waves。 About three…quarters of those
present declared that they perceived the odour。 A larger number
would doubtless have succumbed to suggestion； if at the end of a
minute I had not been forced to stop the experiment； some of
those in the front rows being unpleasantly affected by the odour；
and wishing to leave the hall。''
According to the suggestions of the leaders； the multitude will
be calm； furious； criminal； or heroic。 These various suggestions
may sometimes appear to present a rational aspect； but they will
only appear to be reasonable。 A crowd is in reality inaccessible
to reason； the only ideas capable of influencing it will always
be sentiments evoked in the form of images。
The history of the Revolution shows on every page how easily the
multitude follows the most contradictory impulses given by
its different leaders。 We see it applaud just as vigorously at
the triumph of the Girondists； the Hebertists； the Dantonists；
and the Terrorists as at their successive downfalls。 One may be
quite sure； also； that the crowd understood nothing of these
events。
At a distance one can only confusedly perceive the part played by
the leaders； for they commonly work in the shade。 To g