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least retire to their quarters； according to his orders。 In what
is called discipline； or in the habit of ready obedience； a
militia must always be still more inferior to a standing army
than it may sometimes be in what is called the manual exercise；
or in the management and use of its arms。 But in modern war the
habit of ready and instant obedience is of much greater
consequence than a considerable superiority in the management of
arms。
Those militias which； like the Tartar or Arab militia； go to
war under the same chieftains whom they are accustomed to obey in
peace are by far the best。 In respect for their officers； in the
habit of ready obedience； they approach nearest to standing
armies。 The highland militia； when it served under its own
chieftains； had some advantage of the same kind。 As the
highlanders； however； were not wandering； but stationary
shepherds； as they had all a fixed habitation； and were not； in
peaceable times； accustomed to follow their chieftain from place
to place； so in time of war they were less willing to follow him
to any considerable distance； or to continue for any long time in
the field。 When they had acquired any booty they were eager to
return home； and his authority was seldom sufficient to detain
them。 In point of obedience they were always much inferior to
what is reported of the Tartars and Arabs。 As the highlanders
too； from their stationary life； spend less of their time in the
open air； they were always less accustomed to military exercises；
and were less expert in the use of their arms than the Tartars
and Arabs are said to be。
A militia of any kind； it must be observed； however； which
has served for several successive campaigns in the field； becomes
in every respect a standing army。 The soldiers are every day
exercised in the use of their arms； and； being constantly under
the command of their officers； are habituated to the same prompt
obedience which takes place in standing armies。 What they were
before they took the field is of little importance。 They
necessarily become in every respect a standing army after they
have passed a few campaigns in it。 Should the war in America drag
out through another campaign； the American militia may become in
every respect a match for that standing army of which the valour
appeared； in the last war； at least not inferior to that of the
hardiest veterans of France and Spain。
This distinction being well understood； the history of all
ages； it will be found； bears testimony to the irresistible
superiority which a well…regulated standing army has over a
militia。
One of the first standing armies of which we have any
distinct account； in any well authenticated history； is that of
Philip of Macedon。 His frequent wars with the Thracians；
Illyrians； Thessalians； and some of the Greek cities in the
neighbourhood of Macedon； gradually formed his troops； which in
the beginning were probably militia； to the exact discipline of a
standing army。 When he was at peace； which he was very seldom；
and never for any long time together； he was careful not to
disband that army。 It vanquished and subdued； after a long and
violent struggle； indeed； the gallant and well exercised militias
of the principal republics of ancient Greece； and afterwards；
with very little struggle； the effeminate and ill…exercised
militia of the great Persian empire。 The fall of the Greek
republics and of the Persian empire was the effect of the
irresistible superiority which a standing army has over every
sort of militia。 It is the first great revolution in the affairs
of mankind of which history has preserved any distinct or
circumstantial account。
The fall of Carthage； and the consequent elevation of Rome；
is the second。 All the varieties in the fortune of those two
famous republics may very well be accounted for from the same
cause。
From the end of the first to the beginning of the second
Carthaginian war the armies of Carthage were continually in the
field； and employed under three great generals； who succeeded one
another in the command： Hamilcar； his son…in…law Hasdrubal； and
his son Hannibal； first in chastising their own rebellious
slaves； afterwards in subduing the revolted nations of Africa；
and； lastly； in conquering the great kingdom of Spain。 The army
which Hannibal led from Spain into Italy must necessarily； in
those different wars； have been gradually formed to the exact
discipline of a standing army。 The Romans； in the meantime；
though they had not been altogether at peace； yet they had not；
during this period； been engaged in any war of very great
consequence； and their military discipline； it is generally said；
was a good deal relaxed。 The Roman armies which Hannibal
encountered at Trebia； Thrasymenus； and Cannae were militia
opposed to a standing army。 This circumstance； it is probable；
contributed more than any other to determine the fate of those
battles。
The standing army which Hannibal left behind him in Spain
had the like superiority over the militia which the Romans sent
to oppose it； and in a few years； under the command of his
brother； the younger Hasdrubal； expelled them almost entirely
from that country。
Hannibal was ill supplied from home。 The Roman militia；
being continually in the field； became in the progress of the war
a well disciplined and well…exercised standing army； and the
superiority of Hannibal grew every day less and less。 Hasdrubal
judged it necessary to lead the whole； or almost the whole of the
standing army which he commanded in Spain； to the assistance of
his brother in Italy。 In this march he is said to have been
misled by his guides； and in a country which he did not know； was
surprised and attacked by another standing army； in every respect
equal or superior to his own； and was entirely defeated。
When Hasdrubal had left Spain； the great Scipio found
nothing to oppose him but a militia inferior to his own。 He
conquered and subdued that militia； and； in the course of the
war； his own militia necessarily became a well…disciplined and
well…exercised standing army。 That standing army was afterwards
carried to Africa； where it found nothing but a militia to oppose
it。 In order to defend Carthage it became necessary to recall the
standing army of Hannibal。 The disheartened and frequently
defeated African militia joined it； and； at the battle of Zama；
composed the greater part of the troops of Hannibal。 The event of
that day determined the fate of the two rival republics。
From the end of the second Carthaginian war till the fall of
the Roman republic； the armies of Rome were in every respect
standing armies。 The standing army of Macedon made some
resistance to their arms。 In the height of their grandeur it cost
them two great wars； and three great battles； to subdue that
little kingdom； of which the conquest would probably have been
still more difficult had it not been for the cowardice of its
last king。 The militias of all the civilised nations of the
ancient world； of Greece； of Syria； and of Egypt； made but a
feeble resistance to the standing armies of Rome。 The militias of
some barbarous nations defended themselves much better。 The
Scythian or Tartar militia； which Mithridates drew from the
countries north of the Euxine and Caspian seas； were the most
formidable enemies whom the Romans had to encounter after the
second Carthaginian war。 The Parthian and German militias； too；
were always respectable； and upon several occasions gained very
considerable advantages over the Roman armies。 In general；
however； and when the Roman armies were well commanded； they
appear to have been very much superior； and if the Romans did not
pursue the final conquest either of Parthia or Germany； it was
probably because they judged that it was not worth while to add
those two barbarous countries to an empire which was already too
large。 The