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actions； and to be at all times ready to disturb the peace of
every citizen。 Where the security of the magistrate； though
supported by the principal people of the country； is endangered
by every popular discontent； where a small tumult is capable of
bringing about in a few hours a great revolution； the whole
authority of government must be employed to suppress and punish
every murmur and complaint against it。 To a sovereign； on the
contrary； who feels himself supported； not only by the natural
aristocracy of the country； but by a well…regulated standing
army； the rudest； the most groundless； and the most licentious
remonstrances can give little disturbance。 He can safely pardon
or neglect them； and his consciousness of his own superiority
naturally disposes him to do so。 That degree of liberty which
approaches to licentiousness can be tolerated only in countries
where the sovereign is secured by a well…regulated standing army。
It is in such countries only that the public safety does not
require that the sovereign should be trusted with any
discretionary power for suppressing even the impertinent
wantonness of this licentious liberty。
The first duty of the sovereign； therefore； that of
defending the society from the violence and injustice of other
independent societies； grows gradually more and more expensive as
the society advances in civilization。 The military force of the
society； which originally cost the sovereign no expense either in
time of peace or in time of war； must； in the progress of
improvement； first be maintained by him in time of war； and
afterwards even in time of peace。
The great change introduced into the art of war by the
invention of firearms has enhanced still further both the expense
of exercising and disciplining any particular number of soldiers
in time of peace； and that of employing them in time of war。 Both
their arms and their ammunition are become more expensive。 A
musket is a more expensive machine than a javelin or a bow and
arrows； a cannon or a mortar than a balista or a catapulta。 The
powder which is spent in a modern review is lost irrecoverably；
and occasions a very considerable expense。 The javeline and
arrows which were thrown or shot in an ancient one could easily
be picked up again； and were besides of very little value。 The
cannon and the mortar are not only much dearer； but much heavier
machines than the balista or catapulta； and require a greater
expense； not only to prepare them for the field； but to carry
them to it。 As the superiority of the modern artillery too over
that of the ancients is very great； it has become much more
difficult； and consequently much more expensive； to fortify a
town so as to resist even for a few weeks the attack of that
superior artillery。 In modern times many different causes
contribute to render the defence of the society more expensive。
The unavoidable effects of the natural progress of improvement
have； in this respect； been a good deal enhanced by a great
revolution in the art of war； to which a mere accident； the
invention of gunpowder； seems to have given occasion。
In modern war the great expense of firearms gives an evident
advantage to the nation which can best afford that expense； and
consequently to an opulent and civilised over a poor and
barbarous nation。 In ancient times the opulent and civilised
found it difficult to defend themselves against the poor and
barbarous nations。 In modern times the poor and barbarous find it
difficult to defend themselves against the opulent and civilised。
The invention of firearms； an invention which at first sight
appears to be so pernicious； is certainly favourable both to the
permanency and to the extension of civilization。
PART 2
Of the Expense of Justice
THE second duty of the sovereign； that of protecting； as far
as possible； every member of the society from the injustice or
oppression of every other member of it； or the duty of
establishing an exact administration of justice； requires； too；
very different degrees of expense in the different periods of
society。
Among nations of hunters； as there is scarce any property；
or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days'
labour； so there is seldom any established magistrate or any
regular administration of justice。 Men who have no property can
injure one another only in their persons or reputations。 But when
one man kills； wounds； beats； or defames another； though he to
whom the injury is done suffers； he who does it receives no
benefit。 It is otherwise with the injuries to property。 The
benefit of the person who does the injury is often equal to the
loss of him who suffers it。 Envy； malice； or resentment are the
only passions which can prompt one man to injure another in his
person or reputation。 But the greater part of men are not very
frequently under the influence of those passions； and the very
worst of men are so only occasionally。 As their gratification
too； how agreeable soever it may be to certain characters； is not
attended with any real or permanent advantage； it is in the
greater part of men commonly restrained by prudential
considerations。 Men may live together in society with some
tolerable degree of security； though there is no civil magistrate
to protect them from the injustice of those passions。 But avarice
and ambition in the rich； in the poor the hatred of labour and
the love of present ease and enjoyment； are the passions which
prompt to invade property； passions much more steady in their
operation； and much more universal in their influence。 Wherever
there is great property there is great inequality。 For one very
rich man there must be at least five hundred poor； and the
affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many。 The
affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor； who
are often both driven by want； and prompted by envy； to invade
his possessions。 It is only under the shelter of the civil
magistrate that the owner of that valuable property； which is
acquired by the labour of many years； or perhaps of many
successive generations； can sleep a single night in security。 He
is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies； whom； though he
never provoked； he can never appease； and from whose injustice he
can be protected only by the powerful arm of the civil magistrate
continually held up to chastise it。 The acquisition of valuable
and extensive property； therefore； necessarily requires the
establishment of civil government。 Where there is no property； or
at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days'
labour； civil government is not so necessary。
Civil government supposes a certain subordination。 But as
the necessity of civil government gradually grows up with the
acquisition of valuable property； so the principal causes which
naturally introduce subordination gradually grow up with the
growth of that valuable property。
The causes or circumstances which naturally introduce
subordination； or which naturally； and antecedent to any civil
institution； give some men some superiority over the greater part
of their brethren； seem to be four in number。
The first of those causes or circumstances is the
superiority of personal qualifications； of strength； beauty； and
agility of body； of wisdom and virtue； of prudence； justice；
fortitude； and moderation of mind。 The qualifications of the
body； unless supported by those of the mind； can give little
authority in any period of society。 He is a very strong man； who；
by mere strength of body； can force two weak ones to obey him。
The qualifications of the mind can alone give a very great
authority。 They are； however； invisible qualities； always
disputable； and generally disputed。 No society； whether barbarous
or civilised； has ever found it convenient to settle the rules of
precedency of rank and subor